Calculus Examples

$\int_{\frac{- π}{2}}^{\frac{π}{2}} \sec^{3} (x) d x$

Step 1

Apply the reduction formula.

$\frac{\tan (x) \sec (x)}{2}]_{\frac{- π}{2}}^{\frac{π}{2}} + \frac{1}{2} \int_{\frac{- π}{2}}^{\frac{π}{2}} \sec (x) d x$

Step 2

The integral of $\sec (x)$ with respect to $x$ is $\ln (| \sec (x) + \tan (x) |)$ .

$\frac{\tan (x) \sec (x)}{2}]_{\frac{- π}{2}}^{\frac{π}{2}} + \frac{1}{2} \ln (| \sec (x) + \tan (x) |)]_{\frac{- π}{2}}^{\frac{π}{2}}$

Step 3

Simplify the answer.

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Step 3.1

Substitute and simplify.

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Step 3.1.1

Evaluate $\frac{\tan (x) \sec (x)}{2}$ at $\frac{π}{2}$ and at $\frac{- π}{2}$ .

$(\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{π}{2})}{2}) - \frac{\tan (\frac{- π}{2}) \sec (\frac{- π}{2})}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \ln (| \sec (x) + \tan (x) |)]_{\frac{- π}{2}}^{\frac{π}{2}}$

Step 3.1.2

Evaluate $\ln (| \sec (x) + \tan (x) |)$ at $\frac{π}{2}$ and at $\frac{- π}{2}$ .

$(\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{π}{2})}{2}) - \frac{\tan (\frac{- π}{2}) \sec (\frac{- π}{2})}{2} + \frac{1}{2} ((\ln (| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |)) - \ln (| \sec (\frac{- π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{- π}{2}) |))$

Step 3.1.3

Simplify.

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Step 3.1.3.1

Move the negative in front of the fraction.

$\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{π}{2})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{- π}{2})}{2} + \frac{1}{2} ((\ln (| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |)) - \ln (| \sec (\frac{- π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{- π}{2}) |))$

Step 3.1.3.2

Move the negative in front of the fraction.

$\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{π}{2})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2} + \frac{1}{2} ((\ln (| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |)) - \ln (| \sec (\frac{- π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{- π}{2}) |))$

Step 3.1.3.3

Move the negative in front of the fraction.

$\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{π}{2})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2} + \frac{1}{2} (\ln (| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |) - \ln (| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{- π}{2}) |))$

Step 3.1.3.4

Move the negative in front of the fraction.

Step 3.2

Simplify.

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Step 3.2.1

Use the quotient property of logarithms, $\log_{b} (x) - \log_{b} (y) = \log_{b} (\frac{x}{y})$ .

$\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{π}{2})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2} + \frac{1}{2} \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})$

Step 3.2.2

Combine $\frac{1}{2}$ and $\ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})$ .

$\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{π}{2})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2} + \frac{\ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2}$

Step 3.2.3

Combine the numerators over the common denominator.

$\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{2}) \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3

The exact value of $\tan (\frac{π}{2})$ is $\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{0}$ .

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Step 3.3.1

Split $\frac{π}{2}$ into two angles where the values of the six trigonometric functions are known.

$\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{6} + \frac{π}{3}) \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.2

Apply the sum of angles identity.

$\frac{\frac{\tan (\frac{π}{6}) + \tan (\frac{π}{3})}{1 - \tan (\frac{π}{6}) \tan (\frac{π}{3})} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.3

The exact value of $\tan (\frac{π}{6})$ is $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \tan (\frac{π}{3})}{1 - \tan (\frac{π}{6}) \tan (\frac{π}{3})} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.4

The exact value of $\tan (\frac{π}{3})$ is $\sqrt{3}$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \tan (\frac{π}{6}) \tan (\frac{π}{3})} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.5

The exact value of $\tan (\frac{π}{6})$ is $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} \tan (\frac{π}{3})} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.6

The exact value of $\tan (\frac{π}{3})$ is $\sqrt{3}$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} \sqrt{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7

Simplify $\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} \sqrt{3}}$ .

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Step 3.3.7.1

Simplify each term.

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Step 3.3.7.1.1

Multiply $- \frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} \sqrt{3}$ .

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Step 3.3.7.1.1.1

Combine $\sqrt{3}$ and $\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3}$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{\sqrt{3} \sqrt{3}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.1.2

Raise $\sqrt{3}$ to the power of $1$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{{\sqrt{3}}^{1} \sqrt{3}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.1.3

Raise $\sqrt{3}$ to the power of $1$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{{\sqrt{3}}^{1} {\sqrt{3}}^{1}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.1.4

Use the power rule $a^{m} a^{n} = a^{m + n}$ to combine exponents.

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{{\sqrt{3}}^{1 + 1}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.1.5

Add $1$ and $1$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{{\sqrt{3}}^{2}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.2

Rewrite ${\sqrt{3}}^{2}$ as $3$ .

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Step 3.3.7.1.2.1

Use $\sqrt[n]{a^{x}} = a^{\frac{x}{n}}$ to rewrite $\sqrt{3}$ as $3^{\frac{1}{2}}$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{{(3^{\frac{1}{2}})}^{2}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.2.2

Apply the power rule and multiply exponents, ${(a^{m})}^{n} = a^{m n}$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{3^{\frac{1}{2} \cdot 2}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.2.3

Combine $\frac{1}{2}$ and $2$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{3^{\frac{2}{2}}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.2.4

Cancel the common factor of $2$ .

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Step 3.3.7.1.2.4.1

Cancel the common factor.

Step 3.3.7.1.2.4.2

Rewrite the expression.

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{3^{1}}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.2.5

Evaluate the exponent.

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - \frac{3}{3}} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.3

Cancel the common factor of $3$ .

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Step 3.3.7.1.3.1

Cancel the common factor.

Step 3.3.7.1.3.2

Rewrite the expression.

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - 1 \cdot 1} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.1.4

Multiply $- 1$ by $1$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{1 - 1} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.2

Subtract $1$ from $1$ .

$\frac{\frac{\frac{\sqrt{3}}{3} + \sqrt{3}}{0} \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \ln (\frac{| \sec (\frac{π}{2}) + \tan (\frac{π}{2}) |}{| \sec (- \frac{π}{2}) + \tan (- \frac{π}{2}) |})}{2} - \frac{\tan (- \frac{π}{2}) \sec (- \frac{π}{2})}{2}$

Step 3.3.7.3

The expression contains a division by $0$ . The expression is undefined.

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Step 3.3.8

The expression contains a division by $0$ . The expression is undefined.

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Step 3.4

The expression contains a division by $0$ . The expression is undefined.

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Step 4

The expression contains a division by $0$ . The expression is undefined.

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