Calculus Examples

$\int \frac{x^{4}}{x - 1} d x$

Step 1

Divide $x^{4}$ by $x - 1$ .

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Step 1.1

Set up the polynomials to be divided. If there is not a term for every exponent, insert one with a value of $0$ .

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

Step 1.2

Divide the highest order term in the dividend $x^{4}$ by the highest order term in divisor $x$ .

$x^{3}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

Step 1.3

Multiply the new quotient term by the divisor.

$x^{3}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

Step 1.4

The expression needs to be subtracted from the dividend, so change all the signs in $x^{4} - x^{3}$

$x^{3}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

Step 1.5

After changing the signs, add the last dividend from the multiplied polynomial to find the new dividend.

$x^{3}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

Step 1.6

Pull the next terms from the original dividend down into the current dividend.

$x^{3}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

Step 1.7

Divide the highest order term in the dividend $x^{3}$ by the highest order term in divisor $x$ .

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

Step 1.8

Multiply the new quotient term by the divisor.

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

Step 1.9

The expression needs to be subtracted from the dividend, so change all the signs in $x^{3} - x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

Step 1.10

After changing the signs, add the last dividend from the multiplied polynomial to find the new dividend.

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

Step 1.11

Pull the next terms from the original dividend down into the current dividend.

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

Step 1.12

Divide the highest order term in the dividend $x^{2}$ by the highest order term in divisor $x$ .

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

Step 1.13

Multiply the new quotient term by the divisor.

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

$x^{2}$

$x$

Step 1.14

The expression needs to be subtracted from the dividend, so change all the signs in $x^{2} - x$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

$x^{2}$

$x$

Step 1.15

After changing the signs, add the last dividend from the multiplied polynomial to find the new dividend.

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

$x^{2}$

$x$

Step 1.16

Pull the next terms from the original dividend down into the current dividend.

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$0$

Step 1.17

Divide the highest order term in the dividend $x$ by the highest order term in divisor $x$ .

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$0$

Step 1.18

Multiply the new quotient term by the divisor.

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$0$

$x$

$1$

Step 1.19

The expression needs to be subtracted from the dividend, so change all the signs in $x - 1$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$0$

$x$

$1$

Step 1.20

After changing the signs, add the last dividend from the multiplied polynomial to find the new dividend.

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$1$

$x$

$1$

$x^{4}$

$0 x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$0 x$

$0$

$x^{4}$

$x^{3}$

$0 x^{2}$

$x^{3}$

$x^{2}$

$0 x$

$x^{2}$

$x$

$0$

$x$

$1$

Step 1.21

The final answer is the quotient plus the remainder over the divisor.

$\int x^{3} + x^{2} + x + 1 + \frac{1}{x - 1} d x$

Step 2

Split the single integral into multiple integrals.

$\int x^{3} d x + \int x^{2} d x + \int x d x + \int d x + \int \frac{1}{x - 1} d x$

Step 3

By the Power Rule, the integral of $x^{3}$ with respect to $x$ is $\frac{1}{4} x^{4}$ .

$\frac{1}{4} x^{4} + C + \int x^{2} d x + \int x d x + \int d x + \int \frac{1}{x - 1} d x$

Step 4

By the Power Rule, the integral of $x^{2}$ with respect to $x$ is $\frac{1}{3} x^{3}$ .

$\frac{1}{4} x^{4} + C + \frac{1}{3} x^{3} + C + \int x d x + \int d x + \int \frac{1}{x - 1} d x$

Step 5

By the Power Rule, the integral of $x$ with respect to $x$ is $\frac{1}{2} x^{2}$ .

$\frac{1}{4} x^{4} + C + \frac{1}{3} x^{3} + C + \frac{1}{2} x^{2} + C + \int d x + \int \frac{1}{x - 1} d x$

Step 6

Apply the constant rule.

$\frac{1}{4} x^{4} + C + \frac{1}{3} x^{3} + C + \frac{1}{2} x^{2} + C + x + C + \int \frac{1}{x - 1} d x$

Step 7

Let $u = x - 1$ . Then $d u = d x$ . Rewrite using $u$ and $d$ $u$ .

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Step 7.1

Let $u = x - 1$ . Find $\frac{d u}{d x}$ .

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Step 7.1.1

Differentiate $x - 1$ .

$\frac{d}{d x} [x - 1]$

Step 7.1.2

By the Sum Rule, the derivative of $x - 1$ with respect to $x$ is $\frac{d}{d x} [x] + \frac{d}{d x} [- 1]$ .

$\frac{d}{d x} [x] + \frac{d}{d x} [- 1]$

Step 7.1.3

Differentiate using the Power Rule which states that $\frac{d}{d x} [x^{n}]$ is $n x^{n - 1}$ where $n = 1$ .

$1 + \frac{d}{d x} [- 1]$

Step 7.1.4

Since $- 1$ is constant with respect to $x$ , the derivative of $- 1$ with respect to $x$ is $0$ .

$1 + 0$

Step 7.1.5

Add $1$ and $0$ .

$1$

Step 7.2

Rewrite the problem using $u$ and $d u$ .

$\frac{1}{4} x^{4} + C + \frac{1}{3} x^{3} + C + \frac{1}{2} x^{2} + C + x + C + \int \frac{1}{u} d u$

Step 8

The integral of $\frac{1}{u}$ with respect to $u$ is $\ln (| u |)$ .

$\frac{1}{4} x^{4} + C + \frac{1}{3} x^{3} + C + \frac{1}{2} x^{2} + C + x + C + \ln (| u |) + C$

Step 9

Simplify.

$\frac{1}{4} x^{4} + \frac{1}{3} x^{3} + \frac{1}{2} x^{2} + x + \ln (| u |) + C$

Step 10

Replace all occurrences of $u$ with $x - 1$ .

$\frac{1}{4} x^{4} + \frac{1}{3} x^{3} + \frac{1}{2} x^{2} + x + \ln (| x - 1 |) + C$